Рыночная экономика

БОЛЬШАЯ ЛЕНИНГРАДСКАЯ БИБЛИОТЕКА - РЕФЕРАТЫ - Рыночная экономика

Рыночная экономика

The contents

|I Economic sciences. |

| 1. Microeconomic. |

| 2. Macroeconomic |

|II State regulations of economy. |

|1. Brief historical information. |

|2. Concept of state economic politics. |

|3. Subjects of state regulation of economy. |

| Four communication lines of economic interests with |

| By state economic politics. |

| 1). Carriers of economic interests. |

| 2). Expressers of economic interests. |

| 3). The executors of economic interests. |

| 4). The return communication line. |

| 5). The questionnaire. |

|4. Objects of state regulation of economy. |

| 1). State anticyclic politics. |

| 2). State regulation of economy in area |

| Branch and territorial structure. |

| 3). Accumulation of the capital. |

| 4). Regulation of employment. |

| 5). The money manipulation. |

| 6). A condition of payment balance. |

| 7). The prices. |

|5. General purpose of state regulation |

|Economy and tree of the purposes. |

|6. Means of state regulation of economy. |

| 1). Administrative means. |

| 2). Economic means. |

| 3). The state budget. |

| 4). The taxes. |

| 5). Accelerated amortisation. |

| 6). Public sector. |

| 7). Means of the external economic regulation. |

|7. State economic programming. |

| 1). Objects of the programs. |

| 2). The usual and extreme programs. |

| 3). The target programs. |

| 4). The subjects of economic programming. |

| 5). Borders of economic programming. |

|8. Mechanism of state regulation of economy |

| On an example of the prices. |

| 1). The price right. |

| 2). Supervision of the state over the prices. |

| 3). Indirect influence of the state on the prices. |

| 4). Direct state intervention in process of money appearing. |

| 5). Influence state sector. |

| 6). The contribution of public sector to process |

| Price control. |

|9. Inflation. |

| 1). The reasons of occurrence of inflation. |

| a). Internal. |

| b). External. |

| 2). Types of inflation. |

| a). Slow inflation. |

| b). Galloping inflation. |

| c). Hyperinflation. |

| 3). Consequences of inflation. |

| a). Positive functions. |

| b). Negative consequences. |

| 4). Management of inflation. |

|10. Unemployment. |

| 1). The market of work. |

| 2). Classification of the unemployed. |

| 3). The formula of calculation of monthly average |

| Rate of unemployment. |

| 4). The concepts treating a phenomenon of unemployment. |

| 5). Directions of state regulation |

| Market of work. |

| 6). Labour exchange. |

|11. Stages of state regulation of economy. |

| |

|III Lists of the used literature. |

“The People, who have never systematically learned the economic theory,

are similar to deaf persons, which try to estimate sounding an orchestra ”.

P. Samulson

There are fields of knowledge and vital experience, about which, it

seems any of us can judge. Except for politics, to such spheres concern

medicine and, certainly, economy. It is not casual, you see economy –

science is empirical, it connection with practice is direct. Each of us,

irrespective of preparation, collides daily with the economic phenomena. We

are all workers - create values or we raise the qualification, we receive

the incomes, we address to the market, we watch (keep up) the prices, we

are the consumers. The economy studies “homo economics” - economic man, his

actions and interests. Well as in medicine, where for statement of the

diagnosis it is necessary to know the functioning of a healthy organism,

first of all to understand the laws of functioning of healthy economy.

The economic science is called to define how to use the limited

resources maximum effectively - natural stocks, capitals, labour reserves.

Like other branches of knowledge, the economy includes a set of axioms and

proofs, suitable for the analysis in any concrete conditions. And in this

narrow sense it can not be national, as well as there can not be a American

physics or German mathematics. The prices of the goods everywhere are

defined by a parity of a supply and demand, with the growth of the income

there is a reduction of its consumed part and increase gathering.

But the economy has basic difference from exact and natural sciences:

it has business not with the separate man on a uninhabited island, but with

the member of a society subject to influence of traditions, national

mentality and political institutes. The toolkit of the economist has

therefore national specificity.

The science is formed approximately the same as the tree grows or the

building is constructed. The great economists of the past have put in pawn

the base, have created the theory named as microeconomy. As initial item

for the analysis a facilities of the businessman and farmer were taken. The

microeconomy studies the relation between the businessmen (competition),

businessmen and hired workers, sellers and buyers. It formulates the laws:

supplies and demand, rarity-decreasing income, limiting productivity of

work or capital. The microeconomy is directly connected to enterprise

activity, at the same time being a management for business.

The economic theory created in 18 - 19 centuries is named classical, it

answered requirements of development of an industrial society based on a

private property and freedom of an economic choice. The creativity of

ingenious Adam Smite for economy is compared to the invention of a wheel.

Gradually national economy is turning to complex systems of branches

forming a global economy. Periodically repeating economic crisises, chronic

- unemployment and inflation become a rule.

Business practice includes problems, which are not solved through

traditional means. The economists begin to be interested in questions of

general balance, cumulative demand, money manipulation.

The 20 centuries appeared to be a stage of macroeconomy. The large

system is not only set of small subsystems - firms and branches, but also a

new quality. Its actions are operated by other mechanisms. Macrosystem can

not be described by categories of microsystem (price, profit, competition

etc.). New techniques and tools here are necessary.

The Macroeconomic analysis becomes a basis of state politics, development

of the programs, selective (“dot”) methods of influence. But macroeconomic

is knowledge that works not far from business. You see such formulas, as

the return dependence between inflation and unemployment in scale of a

society, or between bank percent and rates of growth of a total product,

between growth of inflation and downturn of the exchange rate of domestic

currency is necessary to know, even to expect changes of a conjuncture and

probable general idea of government, direction of state regulation of

economy.

“ Most of all laws were created in vague times of republic... ”

The state regulation of economy has a long history. The practice here

outstrips the theory. During early capitalism in Europe there was a

centralised control above the prices, quality of the goods and services,

interest rates and foreign trade.

17 century – is a century of the pioneers of the normative economic

theory - wrote that only detailed management on the part of government is

capable to supply the order in economic sphere. They saw in a state

management a means of ensuring social validity.

With transition to capitalism and appearing of free competition, many

aspects of “pioneers” theory were destroyed. The approach of people who

based a classical economy (18 centuries), limiting state intervention in

economic life, has the historical explanation. You see in that period

economy was ruled by the market and freedom of a choice. In economic sense

freedom assumes two main components: the right, to a private property

protected by the law and independence of acceptance of the decisions. In 18

- 19 centuries the economic role of the state was reduced, basically, to

protection of these primary rights. The XX century was market by almost

universal strengthening of economic presence of the state.

From the second half of 19 century national manufacture has achieved

unprecedented scales. The end of the century is connected with explosion,

jump in scientific - technical development and appearance of new branches.

All these circumstance needed requirement for co-ordination, for

maintenance of proportions on macro-level, for anticyclic regulation.

The amplification of state regulation was dictated by the purposes of

preparation to wars, their conducting, maintenance of war-protection. The

whole system of measures including compulsory movements system (GERMANY),

protectionism (Japan) was developed. The army-industrial complexes closely

connected to government were formed.

The state regulation of economy was necessary for realisation of social

politics, for general strategy socialisation in a broad sense. Collective

consumption or satisfaction of public requirements (public health services,

education, support deprived and others) are impossible without use of state

levers and organisations.

And, at last, it would be desirable to emphasise, meaning day today's,

need for state support and sometimes organisations of fundamental

scientific researches, and also protection of environment.

The state regulation, thus, is caused by occurrence of new economic

needs, with which the market on the nature can not consult.

And, though the similar regulation in modern market economy is carried

out in much smaller scales, than in administrative - command system,

nevertheless here economic role of the state is great, is special in

comparison with the system of a free competition.

The state regulation of economy in conditions of a market economy

represents system of typical measures of legislative, executive and

supervising character which is carried out by competent official bodies and

public organisations with the purposes of stabilisation and the adaptation

existing socially - of economic system, and conditions.

In the process of development of a market economy the economic and

social problems became aggravated, they could not be solved automatically

on the basis of a private property. The necessity of the significant

investments, has appeared necessary for continuation of reproduction in

national scales; branch and social crises, mass unemployment, the

infringements in the money manipulation become aggravated competition in

the global markets required state economic politics.

Theoretically concept state economic wider than concept of state

regulation of economy, as first can be based on a principle of non-

interference of the state in economic life (known principle of economic

liberalism laisser faire - laisser passer). In modern conditions the non-

interference of the state in socially - economic processes is impossible.

Disputes about necessity of state regulation of economy, and about its

scales, forms and intensity are conducted for a long time. Therefore terms

“ state regulation of economy ” and “ state economic politics ” are

presently identical.

The objective opportunity of state regulation occurs with the

achievement of the certain level of economic development, concentration of

manufacture and capital. The necessity of transforming this opportunity

into the validity consists in increase of problems, difficulties.

In modern conditions the state regulation of economy is a component of

reproduction. It solves various tasks: for example, stimulation of economic

growth, regulation of employment, encouragement of progressive shifts in

branch and regional structure, support of export. The concrete directions,

forms, scales of state regulation of economy are defined by character and

acuteness of economic and social problems in this or that country in the

concrete period.

For understanding of the mechanism of state regulation of economy it is

expedient to characterise its subjects, objects, purposes, means, and also

stages of its development.

The subjects of economic politics are the carriers and executors of

economic interests.

The carriers of economic interests are social groups distinguished from

each other on a number of attributes: property, the incomes, on kinds of

activity at the similar incomes, on trades, branch and regional interests.

They are hired workers and owners of the enterprises, farmers and land

proprietors, businessmen managers and the shareholders, civil servants etc.

Each of these groups has interests caused by their social economic rule,

and also accessory to that or other region, kind of activity.

The representatives of these groups individually express the interests

in mass media, on meetings and addressing with the requests, protests,

wishes to official bodies responsible for economic and social politics.

It is the first communication line of economic interests with the state

device regulating an economy.

The carriers of economic interests are incorporated in the advanced

countries of a market economy in numerous unions, association: it is trade

unions, unions of the businessmen, farmers, various dealers, students,

brokers and т. Item. Some of these unions total millions members (trade

unions, for example), others play a huge role in a national economy because

of the capitals, represented by them, (unions of the businessmen, bank

establishments, trade chambers). There are also absolutely insignificant

associations, for example, association of the physical and legal persons

interested in a privatisation of the concrete ground area, belonging to

municipality. Such associations are expressers of economic interests.

Most powerful expressers of economic interests are unions of the

businessmen and trade unions. They carry out the own concepts of social

economic politics, aspiring to render the maximal influence on state

economic politics. At expressers of economic interests there are printed

editions, significant financial resources, centres of training of personnel

and public relations. The unions of the businessmen and trade unions are

constructed to a branch and territorial attribute, all local and branch

unions hierarchically are subordinated to the national centres, which, in

turn, enter into the international, regional and global associations.

The recommendations, advises, memorandums, various channels of

influence these expressers of economic interests on bodies of state

economic regulation is the second communication line of economic interests

with state economic politics.

Expressers of social economic, political, religious, cultural,

ecological, specific regional interests are the political parties, which

frequently work under a banner of national interests.

To carry out in life the program of state economic politics there will

be a subject of state economic regulation - executors of economic

interests. It is the main, third line of transformation of private-

individual economic interests in state economic politics.

The executors of economic interests - subjects of state regulation of

economy - are the bodies of three branches of authorities constructed by a

hierarchical principal, and also central national bank. The tendency of

amplification of a role of the central bodies of authority among the

subjects of state economic regulation is appreciable more and more

independent becomes the executive bodies.

Interesting from the point of view of study of the mechanism of state

regulation of economy the merge of the subjects of state and private

economic politics and occurrence is as a result of it of new regulating

bodies which are not entered theoretically in the classical circuit of

parliamentary or presidential republic. For example, the body from the

representatives of unions of the businessmen, trade unions and executive

authority for regulation of the tariff agreements between the businessmen

and workers are created. The committees, advice on maintenance or

development of separate branches from the representatives of the ministry

of economy and branch unions of the businessmen are organised. Similar

advice is created for realisation of the state regional programs. The basic

part of such bodies formally carries out advisory activity, but actually

decisive image influence state economic politics. Various advice of the

experts concerns to such bodies at government, ministries of economy,

finance, social maintenance, their separate management, central bank,

governments of state iron roads, mail and telegraph etc.

Other group of government-private regulation of economy is advice on

spheres of activity, for example, scientific and technical, army-

industrial, on regional politics, on internal waterways of the messages, on

vocational training. As against branch advice in them the representatives

of the most different branches, banks, various funds, associations of the

engineers, trade unions, public movements enter alongside with the

employees of governmental bodies and experts. Their recommendations concern

the basic orientation of state economic politics, its directions of an

expenditure of means from the budget and various funds.

It is the fourth communication line between carriers of economic

interests and state regulation of economy: carriers (in this case

interested firms) – expressers (unions of the businessmen) – advice at

state regulating bodies. On this line there is an updating of interests of

a private enterprise to interest others social, professional, public (for

example, ecological) groups.

There are numerous opportunities of influence of carriers and

expressers of economic interests on state economic politics: through bodies

of the mass information, demonstration and manifestation, tax of the

signatures, manipulation in courts - from local up to international,

campaign of civil disobedience.

Feedback between state regulation of economy and carriers of economic

interests rather rigid.

First, the success of state regulation of economy is shown in rates of

growth, improvement of structure of economy, growth of employment, healthy

payment balance, decrease of rates of inflation, increase of a vital level.

Secondly, the successes of state regulation of economy are reflected in

parameters which are not always given in to exact quantitative measurement:

in a level of social intensity (strike, demonstrations, various

performances), estimation of state regulation of economy by mass media,

condition of an environment, quality of life in cities.

Thirdly, carriers of economic interests are direct and through the

associations supported or do not support government. The loss of trust of

the voters and associations of economic interests to a ruling party or

parties is a main line of a feedback between state economic politics and

carriers of economic interests.

The bodies of state regulation of economy can not afford to find out

reaction of carriers of economic interests to a general orientation and

concrete measures of state economic politics during choices, to wait, when

the discontent by an economic situation starts. The extreme forms (strike,

flight of the capital). The operative information, whenever possible

authentic forecasts the behaviour of the economic subjects is necessary to

governmental bodies in case of realisation of this or that measure of state

regulation of economy. For this purpose there is a fulfilled mechanism as

biographical interrogations. Through a biographical method the efficiency

of toolkit budget, a special way of regulation, influence of state

purchases and orders, investments in public sector are investigated. This

method has turned out to be the working tool of state regulation of economy

ensuring a feedback between regulating bodies and carriers of economic

interests.

So, it was the ideal picture of dependence of state regulation of

economy from economic interests, mechanism of this dependence and feedback.

In real life weight of rejections from model - is observed there is a

struggle between separate groups of interests for influence on bodies of

regulation, a wide circulation has received these method, the facts of

corruption in bodies of state economic politics in the various countries

are known. But the mechanism of state regulation of economy functions all

the same not on rejections, but by rules.

The objects of state regulation of economy are spheres, branches,

regions, and also situations, phenomenon and condition of social economic

life of the country, where have arisen or there can be difficulties,

problems not permitted automatically or permitted in a long-term future,

while the removal of these problems urgently is necessary for normal

functioning of economy and maintenance of social stability.

The basic objects of state regulation of economy is:

1. Business cycle;

2. Sectors, branch and regional structure of a economy;

3. Conditions of accumulation of the capital;

4. Employment;

5. The money reference(manipulation);

6. Payment balance;

7. The prices

8. Research also is skilled - design works having by the purpose

development and realisation of scientific ideas;

9. Conditions of a competition;

10. The social attitudes(relations), including the attitudes(relation)

between the employers and working on hiring, and also social

maintenance;

11. Preparation and retraining of the staff;

12. Environment;

13. Foreign economic relations.

Obviously, the transferred objects can carry completely various

character, they cover macroeconomic processes - economic cycle,

accumulation of the capital in scales of the country, separate branches,

territorial complexes and even the relation between the subjects – the

condition of a competition, the relations between trade unions and

associations of the businessmen, between state regulating bodies.

Let's consider major of them.

The essence of state anticyclic politics, or regulation of an economic

conjuncture, is, that during crises and depressions should stimulate demand

for the goods and services, capital investments and employment. For this

purpose the additional financial privileges are given to the private

capital, the state charges and investments are increased. In conditions of

long and rough rise in a national economy there can be dangerous phenomena

– using of commodity stocks, growth of import and deterioration of payment

balance, excess of demand on a labour above the offer and from here

unreasonable growth of wages and prices. In such situation, the task of

state regulation of economy - to brake growth of demand, capital

investments and manufacture whenever possible to reduce overproduction of

the goods and less products of the capitals and, thus, to reduce depth and

duration of possible recession of manufacture, investments and employment

in the future.

The state regulation of economy in the field of branch and territorial

structure also is carried out through financial stimulus and state capital

investments, which provide privileged conditions to separate branches and

regions. In one cases the support appears to branches and territorial units

which are taking place in a condition of long crisis; in others - the

development of new branches and kinds of manufactures - carriers of

scientific and technical progress called to result to progressive

structural changes inside branches, between branches and in all a national

economy as a whole. The increase of its efficiency and competitiveness is

encouraged. At the same time can be the stopping of excessive concentration

of manufacture arranged on.

Major object of state economy regulation is the accumulation of the

capital. Manufacture, assignment and capitalisation of the profit always

serve an overall objective of economic activity in market economy,

therefore state economic politics of encouragement of accumulation first of

all corresponds to economic interests to the subjects of an economy.

Simultaneously state regulation of accumulation is also used to serve also

to other objects of state economy regulation. Creating additional stimulus

and opportunities in different time to all investors or their separate

groups on branches and territories the regulating bodies influence a

business cycle and structure.

The regulation of employment is maintenance normal from the point of

view of market economy of parity between a supply and demand of a labour.

Parity should satisfy requirement of economy for the qualified and

disciplined workers, which wages serve for them a sufficient motivation to

work. However parity between a supply and demand should not conduct to

excessive growth of wages, which can be reflected negative in national

competitiveness. The sharp decrease of employment is undesirable also, it

conducts to increase the army of the unemployed, decrease of consumer

demanded, tax receipts, growth of the charges on the grants and, most

important, it is dangerous by social consequences.

Constant object of attention of state regulating bodies is money

manipulation. The basic orientation of regulation of money manipulation -

struggle with inflation representing serious danger to economy. The

regulation of money manipulation influences and other objects - condition

of accumulation, price, social relations.

The condition of payment balance is an objective parameter of economic

health of the country. In all countries with a market economy the state

constantly carries out operative and strategic regulation of payment

balance by influence on export and import, movement of the capital,

increase and downturn of rates of national currencies, marketcontractual

politics and participation in the international economic integration.

One more of the main objects of regulation - price. Changes and

structure of the prices reflect a condition of economy. At the same time

prices strongly influence structure of economy, condition of capital

investments, stability of national currency, social atmosphere.

The state regulating instances aspire to influence and other objects of

state regulation of economy, for example, to interest private concerns in

development of scientific researches and introduction of their results, in

export of goods, capitals, both saved knowledge and experience are studied

and the laws on observance of rules of a competition, social protection,

protection of an environment are improved.

The objects of state economy regulation of differ depending on a level

of tasks, solved by them. It is the following hierarchical levels: a level

of firm; region; branches; sectors of economy (industry, agriculture,

service); economy as a whole (economic cycle; the money manipulation; the

prices); global (social relations, ecology); economic-political relations

with foreign countries, integration processes).

The general purpose of state regulation of economy is the economic and

social stability and strengthening existing building inside the country and

abroad, adaptation to its varied conditions.

From this general purpose the tree so-called of the concrete purposes

is distributed, without which realisation the general purpose can not be

achieved. These concrete purposes indissoluble are connected with objects

of state regulation of economy. The purpose - alignment of a business cycle

- is directed on the object, that is on a business cycle; improvement of an

environment - on an environment etc.

It is obvious, that the purposes, first, uncommon on importance and

scales and, secondly are in close interrelation. More often one purpose can

not be put and is achieved without dependence from others. For example, it

is impossible to present stimulation НИОКР without creation of favourable

conditions of accumulation of the capital, without alignment of a

conjuncture, perfection of branch structure of economy, stable money

manipulation.

The listed purposes partially block each other, one can appear

temporarily more important and to subordinate to herself others depending

on a real economic and social situation, level of comprehension of this

situation by the subjects of state regulation of economy and from

established by governmental bodies on the given interval of time of system

of priorities of the purposes. Any of the above named purposes can serve,

to promote or to interfere with achievement of other purpose. The concrete

purposes inside a tree of the purposes can be primary, secondary, tertiary

etc. For example, in conditions of crisis the primary purpose becomes an

exit from crisis in narrow concrete sense - revival of a conjuncture. All

other purposes submit to it.

The means of state regulation are subdivided on administrative and

economic.

The administrative means are not connected with creation of additional

material stimulus or danger of financial damage. They are based on force of

state authority and include measures of an interdiction, sanction and

compulsion.

For example, the French authorities have forbidden to build the new

industrial enterprises within the limits of Parisian agglomerations, and

for achievement of this purpose they did not increase the taxes by the new

enterprises, have not entered rude the penalties, which could be economic

measures, and simply have stopped licensing for new industrial

construction.

Or, the government of the Netherlands has solved to use former naval

base as passenger and trade port, by creating, thus, new sphere of the

appendix of the capital. In result in area of port the economic activity

has increased.

The administrative means of regulation in the advanced countries with

market economy are used in insignificant scales. Their sphere of action

basically is limited to protection of an environment and creation of the

minimal household conditions rather poorly of socially protected layers of

the population. However in critical situations their role strongly grows,

for example, during war, emergency in economy. The most large-scale

administrative actions on regulation of economy in after War period of

Japan were currency reformed and made smaller of conducting concerns.

The economic means of state regulation are subdivided into means of

money credit and budget politics.

The independent complex tool of state regulation of economy (and

simultaneously by its object) is the public sector in economy. The maximum

form of state regulation of economy is a state economic programming

covering the numerous purposes and all tooling of state regulation of

economy. About public sector and economic programming the speech will go

below.

The basic economic means are:

1) Regulation of the registration rate (discount politics

which is carried out by the central bank);

2) Establishment and change of the sizes of the minimal

reserves, which financial institutions of the country are obliged to

keep in the central bank;

3) Operation of official bodies in the market of valuable

papers, such as issue of the state obligations, trade by them and

repayment.

Through these tools the state aspires to change a parity of a supply

and demand in the financial market (market of the loan capitals) in a

desirable direction. In process of relative decrease of a role of the

markets of the free capitals in financing capital investments and

especially in connection with reduction of a role of a share stock exchange

and growth of self-maintenance of the large companies by financial assets

the effectiveness of these tools in the most advanced countries has

weakened a little.

The direct state economic regulation is carried out by means of budget

politics. The state budget is an annual plan of the state charges and

sources of the incomes of their financial covering. The project of the

budget annually is discussed and is accepted by a legislative body -

parliament of the country, state or government by assembly. After the end

of financial the year the proxy representatives of the executive authority

report about the activity on mobilisation of the incomes and realisation of

the charges in conformity with accepted in the previous year by the law on

the budget.

The state budget always represents the compromise reflecting a parity

of forces of the basic groups of carriers of various social economic

interests. The charges of the state budget carry out functions of

political, social and economic regulation.

The first place in the budget charges is occupied with social clauses:

the special grants, education, public health services etc. In it the

overall objective of budget politics, as well as all state economic

politics in general - stabilisation, strengthening and adaptation existing

social economic building to varying conditions is shown. These charges are

called to soften differentiation of social groups, it is inevitable

peculiar to market character.

In expenses for economic needs the budget grants to agriculture are

usually allocated. Any state can not be interested in ruin the peasantry,

farmers. And though in the external economic politics of government

sometimes temporarily endow interests of the domestic manufacturers of the

agrarian goods, supposing foreign agricultural production on a home market

in reply to concession of the trade partners, as a rule governments support

average and large farmers land.

The charges on arms and material maintenance of external politics, and

also administrative charge influence demand for consumer goods and

services.

To the tactical purposes of budget regulation the charges on an

internal state duty (for example, prescheduled repayment of a part of the

debt), sizes of the charges on the credits both grants to the private and

state enterprises, agriculture, on creation and perfection of objects of an

infrastructure, on purchase of arms and military construction serve.

The sizes of these charges essentially influence scales of demand and

size of the investments. During crises and depressions the charges of the

state budget on the economic purposes, as a rule, grow, and in time when of

slowing conjuncture - are reduced.

The charges on crediting of export, insurance of the export credits and

taken out capital financed from the budget, stimulate export and in the

long-term plan improve payment balance, open for a national economy the new

foreign markets, promote strengthening of national currency, maintenance of

deliveries on a home market of the necessary goods because of a boundary.

It is the external economic aspect of politics of the budget charges.

The effectiveness of state regulation of economy with the help of the

budget charges depends, first, on the relative sizes of the spent sums;

secondly, from structure of these charges; thirdly, from efficiency of use

of each unit of spent means.

The main tools of mobilisation of financial assets for a covering of

the state charges are the taxes. They also are widely used for influence on

activity of the subjects of economy. It is a special role of the taxes. But

main role of the taxes - regulating. The state regulation through the taxes

depends in a decisive degree on a choice of tax system, and also from kinds

and sizes of tax privileges.

The taxes in state regulation of economy play a double role: on the one

hand, it is the main source of financing of the state charges, the material

basis of budget politics, on the other hand, is the tool of regulation. A

task of state budget bodies - not simply to impose with the taxes those or

other sources of receipt of means and to create the adjusted mechanism of

influence on economic behaviour of the legal and physical persons is thin.

For this purpose temporarily or selectively given tax discounts, delay of

payment of the taxes are used.

The special place among means of state regulation of economy which is

carried out through the taxes, plays accelerated amortisation of a fixed

capital and connected with it(him) formation(education) and realisation of

the latent reserves carried out within the framework of the sanctions of

the ministries of the finance.

Accelerated amortisation of a fixed capital in modern conditions is by

the main means of stimulation of accumulation, structural changes in

economy and important tool of influence on an economic cycle - the

employment. Essence it in a separation of physical process amortisation of

machines, equipment, buildings and structures from the production costs of

carry of cost of material carriers of a fixed capital on the made goods and

services. Changing the rates and order amortisation, the state regulating

bodies determine that part of the clean profit, which can be released from

the taxes by inclusion in production costs and then is listed in

amortisation fund for financing in the further new capital investments.

At check of correctness of payment of the tax from the profit the tax

inspectors agree with accounting of production costs or services only if

the amortisation deductions were made in conformity with norms solved by

the ministry of the finance. The size of the balance profit, rate and size

of the tax, and also paid dividends depends on it.

The variation of norms accelerated amortisation of a fixed capital is

widely used in all advanced countries as a means of state tactical and

structural politics, and also for stimulation of scientific researches and

introduction of their results, for financing nature protection of measures.

The effect of a variation of norms of amortisation deductions is swept up

within a favourable conjuncture, i.e. in the periods of slowing and crises

the effectiveness of amortisation politics weakens. The worse conjuncture,

the more difficult & is to realise profit, it is less than opportunities

for self-financing, and the amortisation privileges given by the state,

becomes less attractive stimulus for the private investments. The

privileges on accelerated amortisation are equivalent to reduction of

receipts from the taxes from profits in the state budget. Result can be

increase of other taxes or growth state duty.

The state capital investments are carried out substantially in public

sector of economy playing a major role in state regulation of economy. It

is simultaneously object and tool of influence on a private enterprise.

The public sector represents a complex of economic objects, wholly or

partially belonging to the central and local state bodies. The public

sector existed in many countries long before development of capitalism,

including mail, partially transport service, manufacturing of the weapon

etc. On a measure forming systems of state regulation of economy the state

built, redeemed at the private proprietors economic objects, mainly in

sphere of an infrastructure, heavy industry, which functioning was always

favourably and it is necessary for a national economy, but not always it is

favourable from the point of view of the private capital.

In one country the public sector has arisen basically as a result of

nationalisation of a number of branches and enterprises (in France, Italy,

Great Britain, Austria), in others the state built or got ruined economic

objects (in USA, Sweden, Japan). In the first group of the countries the

share of public sector in national riches is higher, than in second.

Significant parts of public sector are objects of an infrastructure, in

the majority unprofitable. Other part - the state enterprises in raw and

power branches, where are required the large investments, and turnover of

the capital slow. Profitability of state-owned firms, as a rule, below,

than private. A part of public sector is packages of the actions of the

mixed private-state companies.

The existence in conditions of a market economy of sectors, which in

the activity is guided by principles a little bit distinguished from

principles of private concerns, allows using public sector for the decision

of nation-wide economic tasks, increasing money of a private enterprise.

The exclusive profit, and frequently and profit in general, is not the

paramount purpose of activity of public sector in an infrastructure, power,

raw branches, НИОКР, in preparation and retraining of the staff, in the

field of protection of an environment, as high profits nobody requires of

these spheres, and the losses become covered from the budget. Therefore

public sector has become the supplier of cheap services (in particular,

transport, mail-telegraphic), electric power and raw material, reducing,

thus, costs in private sector.

The public sector as a means of state regulation of economy is actively

used. So, in conditions of deterioration of a conjuncture, the depressions

or crisis, when the private capital investments are reduced, investment in

public sector, as a rule, grow. Thus, the governmental bodies aspire to

counteract recession of manufacture and growth of unemployment. The public

sector plays an appreciable role in state structural politics. The state

creates new objects or expands and reconstructs old in those spheres of

activity, branches or regions, where the private capital connected is not

enough. So, the public sector plays a huge role in economy, preparation and

retraining of the staff. The state-owned firms are engaged also in foreign

trade, export of the capital abroad, frequently acting by the pioneers in

introduction of the national capital in any country (for example,

participation of the German concern “ Volkswagen ”, federal taking place in

property federal and ground governments, in motor industry of Czech).

In the whole public sector serves addition of a private enterprise

there and such measure, where and as far as the motivation for the private

capital appears insufficient. In result the public sector serves to

increase of efficiency of a national economy as a whole and is one of tools

of redistribution of a total internal product (the complete internal

product is a cumulative cost of production of sphere of material

manufacture and spheres of services, irrespective of a national accessory

of the enterprises located in territory of the given country).

The sizes of public sector, its share in national economy, change not

only as a result of new construction and purchase, but also as a

consequence of a privatisation - sale profitable, reconstructed objects of

public sector to the private capital. In 80-th and 90-th years this

tendency appreciably has amplified.

Alongside with the listed tools of state regulation of economy having

internal economy the orientation, an arsenal of means of the external

economic regulation exists.

Practically all levers of influence on process of reproduction inside

the country render essential influence on foreign economic relations:

change of the registration rate, taxation new privileges and grants on the

investment in a fixed capital etc.

However there are also special tools of direct influence on economic

communications with abroad. It is, first of all, a measure of stimulation

of export of goods, services, capitals, scientific and technical and

administrative experience: crediting of export, warranting of the export

credits and investments abroad, introduction or cancellation of

quantitative restrictions, change of the duty in foreign trade; measures on

attraction or restriction of access of the foreign capital in a national

economy, change of conditions of its functioning, qualitative selection

(from the point of view of a branch orientation and technological level)

acting from abroad capital, attraction in the country of a foreign labour,

participation in the international economic organisations, integration

state associations.

The separate tools of state economic politics can be used in the

various purposes, in various combinations and with different intensity.

Depending on character of the purposes the place of that or other tool in

an arsenal of means of state regulation of economy in the concrete period

will vary.

The maximum form of state regulation of economy is the state economic

programming. Its task - complex use in the global purposes of all elements

of state regulation of economy.

In process of complication of tasks on regulation of economy of

government of steel to formulate short-term, intermediate term and long-

term tasks to determine the order of their decision and bodies responsible

for performance of these decisions, to allocate necessary means and to

determine the order of financing.

Objects of such target programs usually are the branches (in

particular, agriculture); regions; social sphere (for example, social

economic adaptation settlers, maintenance by their work and habitation);

various directions of scientific researches.

The programs are usual and extreme. The usual intermediate term

programs are made, as a rule, for five years with annual updating and

prolongation for one year (sliding programming). The extreme programs are

developed in critical situations, for example, in conditions of crisis,

mass unemployment dangerous inflation; they, as a rule, short-term. In

toolkits of their realisation the appreciable place is occupied with means

of administrative regulation.

The level of development of state programming in the separate countries

is various. Practically in all countries of market economy the target

programs are carried out. One of oldest - regional-power target program on

development of pool of the river Tennessee in USA, program of development

of nuclear power in France, economic development of the south of Italy.

The national extreme programs on restoration of economy of Southern

Korea after war, on structural reorganisation and privatisation of new

grounds (East Germany) after connection of GDR to Germany are known.

In a citadel of a market economy - USA - the national programming is

not present, but widely target and extreme programs are applied. Obviously,

the distinctions in a degree of development of programming in the separate

countries depend on character and scales of tasks, which economic and

social situation puts before the state.

The subjects of economic programming - official bodies responsible for

drawing up of the programs, their direct realisation and control above

them. The programs are developed by a special state body (for example,

Commissaries on planning in France), and if it is not present, by the

ministries of economy and finance or special ministry system. Thus the

ministry of economy, as a rule, prepares the project of the program,

formulates hierarchy of the purposes, terms and sequence of realisation of

separate measures, names instances which are bearing responsibility for

performance.

The ministry of the finance develops the plan of financing of the

program. The representatives of the central bank, unions of the

businessmen, commercial and industrial chambers, trade unions are widely

involved in development of the programs, the various commissions and advice

of the experts are created.

The program and financial plan are annually (in connection with a

sliding principle of prolongation) affirmed by parliament, also of time per

one year the reports on their performance are heard.

The state economic programming has appeared rather effective at the

decision of a number of economic and social tasks, however this efficiency

has objective borders. In conditions of market economy the programming can

be only indicative, that is to carry target-stimulating character.

Nevertheless, it has appeared a rather effective means of the decision of

tasks of a different level; if the state programs frequently also were not

realised completely, all of them - provided social economic development in

a desirable direction. That circumstance is not less important also, that

the programming allows systematically using all means of state regulation

of economy, to avoid discrepancy and inconsistency of regulating measures

of separate official bodies.

State financial stimulation, orders and the purchases within the

framework of the economic programs render appreciable and non-uniform

influence on competitiveness of the separate companies, situation of

branches, regions, of social groups and cause resistance what interests

have appeared restrained. On state programming systems therefore constantly

there is a versatile influence reflecting inconsistent interests of

separate groups, public forces, political groups.

Let's consider the mechanism of state regulation on an example of

politics of the prices.

Contrary to widespread at many to opinion, that in the countries of

market economy money appearing occurs spontaneously, actually prices are

object of constant attention and regulation on the part of the state. The

prices are one of critical points economic and social - political life,

where the group interests of the manufacturers and consumers, wholesale and

retail dealers, trade unions and unions of the businessmen, exporters and

importers collide. The prices mention interests everyone and, naturally,

around of them there is a struggle in parties and parliaments, in

government and on negotiation of the social partners, at the international

meetings.

The influence on the prices serves to the global purposes of state

regulation of economy, purposes of tactical and structural politics,

struggle with inflation, amplification of national competitiveness in the

world markets and mitigation of social intensity. The influence of state

economic politics on other objects of regulation, in turn, is reflected in

processes of formation of the prices.

The concrete actions in the field of the prices can have short-term or

even the emergency purposes, which can in the given concrete moment not

coincide with other purposes, but at the end they always serve of the

general purpose of state regulation - optimisation of rates both

proportions of economic development and stabilisation of social system

The classical political economy examined the prices, freely developing

in the market, as the main element of the mechanism of maintenance of

balance between a supply and demand. However actually there was never of

ideal general and complete freedom money appearing. All question in a

degree and forms of restriction of free game of the prices. Even if to

abstract from opportunities of arrangement of the manufacturers and

sellers, during all history of capitalism it is possible to look after

influence of the state on the prices.

The tariffs for services of state iron roads, mail, telegraph, sale of

the foodstuffs from state stocks per poor harvest years, customs politics

and indirect taxation essential image influencing on the internal price, -

here the not complete list of measures of state price control for last 100

- 150 years.

The first world war which has begun after it depression and crisis,

have served as the moment of changes in a history of state price control.

K. Muller wrote in this occasion, that the political and economic shocks in

the state and society have caused comprehension that in interests of the

best functioning of a economy, more uniform distribution and avoidance of

danger of revolutionary revolution it would be expedient, that the state

has undertaken care of regulation of economic process and maintenance of

the fair prices.

Attempts to adjust the prices in conditions of inflation and crisis by

the foreign trade politics have appeared insolvent. To the middle of the 30-

th years in many advanced countries with market economy the laws giving to

the state powers on influence on the prices, down to their freezing were

accepted, and the state measures on influence on the prices become a

component of state regulation of economy.

The state measures on price control can carry legislative,

administrative and judicial character. The laws, accepted by parliaments,

create a legal basis of the relations between the economic subjects, and

also between them and state in sphere money appearing. The complex of these

laws represents the price right entering by a component into civil law. On

the basis of this right the authorised state bodies carry out

administrative activity on price control. In case of infringement of the

laws guilty can be involved in the judicial responsibility.

Party fractions independent deputies bring in the administration bills

of the prices, as well as on other economic questions, to parliaments or

government, is direct measures on price control carry out the ministries of

economy, finance and central bank. In a number of the countries there are

ministries of trade, agriculture. They also render influence on money

appearing. In many countries at the end of 60 - in the 70-th years ministry

advice under the prices was created, they have is observant - consultative

functions.

In each country at government or its separate bodies there are expert

committees, where the known experts, and advice, in which they meeting the

representatives of trade unions, unions of the peasants, dealers,

businessmen and representatives of state bodies enter; the committees are

called to advise state bodies on the prices and to express the opinion

concerning the price administration bills.

Let's consider state price control in a historical and logic sequence.

The supervision over the prices is the primary form of state activity

in this area. The business not only that from it began state price control;

now supervision over the prices forms the basis, on which all state actions

in this area are based. In supervision over the prices the central

statistical managements are engaged. The independent researches of movement

of the prices frequently will carry out the research centres of trade

unions special commissions under orders of a management of parties,

international organisations.

Overall objective of supervision behind the prices on the part of state

bodies and social partners - change of growth of cost of life for

definition of an index of annual nominal increase of wages and pensions,

and also for finding - out of influence of a rise in prices on production

costs and national competitiveness. The state can affect the prices,

entering or cancelling quantitative and customs restrictions in foreign

trade, entering in integration unions, changing the registration rate,

varying the taxes, carrying out a currency issue etc. The indirect

influence on the prices is rendered, in essence, by(with) all state

regulating actions(shares), with what the purposes they did not serve.

The state intervention in process money appearing is carried out by the

overestimate, authorised by governmental bodies, of production costs

through inclusion in the cost price overestimated amortisation and

deductions in other funds. As a result of it in the whole branches there is

a situation, when “ the costs prop up the price ”, i.e. settlement (instead

of valid) the production costs appear at all enterprises of branch as a

result of the privileges, announced by government, are so high, that the

increase of the prices becomes itself by the understood phenomenon, and as

the privileges are distributed to all branch, internal branches the

competition in conditions of a favourable conjuncture can not be a

sufficient obstacle for a rise in prices.

Direct state intervention in process money appearing is the state

politics of an establishment of the prices on the so-called excise goods.

The direct influence on formation of the prices is rendered with the

state grants. One of kinds of such grants - price - provides decrease of

the prices by special surcharges to the manufacturer or consumer.

The direct influence on the prices and leadership in the prices has a

place in branches, where the share of the state in consumption of the goods

and services is significant, for example, in military industries, in a

number down-branches of construction. The governmental bodies, being by the

constant buyers or customers of the certain kinds of the goods and services

at private concerns, establish under the arrangement with the partners “

the concrete prices ”, which become then base prices for branch.

Effective means of price control is the tax to additional cost. The

manufacturers include this tax in the price of the goods or service, and

difference of change of the rates of this tax directly influences the

prices.

The special direction of state economic politics is the state influence

on the foreign trade prices. State encouragement of export, clearing of the

exporters of the taxes (return of the taxes), and in some countries - the

export grants, granting of the soft loans and transport tariffs by an

essential image are reflected in conditions of a price competition in the

world market.

Establishment of the prices on mineral raw material extracted in state

mines, on the electric power from state power stations and railway, mail-

telegraphic tariffs - example of fixing of the prices on the goods and

services state sector.

These is artificial undercharges and the tariffs promote decrease of

production costs in a private enterprise and increase of national

competitiveness for the account is artificial of the lowered profitability

or deficiency of these objects of a state ownership.

Fixing of the prices or establishment of limits of their increase in

public sector - typical means of administrative economic regulation. It is

seldom applied and, as a rule, in conditions of a market economy is

inefficient in long-term and even intermediate term aspect. It is used more

often in exclusive cases as a means of easing of social intensity.

National bodies carry out the control above the prices for the certain

kinds of the goods.

Examples can serve an establishment of the prices on coal and black

metals by the European association of steel, annual establishment of

procurement prices on agricultural products in the European union,

participation of the countries in the international conferences,

organisations on separate kinds of the goods, tariffs for an airline

traffic.

One of the difficulties of the questions of economic politics is the

management of inflation. In the world there are not enough of countries,

where in second half 20 centuries there was no inflation. Though it has

come on change of former illness of market economy, which has become

obviously to weaken, - cyclic crises.

The inflation is a depreciation of money, decrease of their buying

power. Usually inflation has in the basis not one, and some interconnected

reasons, and are shown it not only in increase of the prices - alongside

with open, by price inflation has a place latent, or suppressed, inflation

shown first of all in deficiency, deterioration of quality of the goods. In

literal translation with the Latin inflation means “swelling”, i.e.

overflow of channels of the manipulation by the superfluous paper money

which has been not supplied with the appropriate growth of commodity

weight.

The reasons of inflation are diverse. Usually in a basis of inflation

the discrepancy of money demand and commodity weight - demand for the goods

lays and services exceeds the sizes goods turnover, that creates conditions

that the manufacturers and suppliers lifted the prices irrespective of a

level of costs. A disproportion between a supply and demand, excess of the

incomes above the consumer charges can be deviated by deficiency budjet

(charges of the state exceed the incomes); by excessive investment (volume

of the investments exceeds opportunities of economy); by outstripping

growth of wages in comparison with growth of manufacture and increase of

productivity of work; by an any establishment of state-set prices causing

skews in size and structure of demand; by other factors.

Let's refer as an example to a sharp aggravation of deficiency state

budjet in Russia in the second half of 80-th years (1985-1989 years - break

between profitable and account parts of the state budget has grown, with 18

up to 120 billion rub., or from 3,5 % up to 19 % to the national income of

the country). The increased deficiency has put huge harm to the money

manipulation, has urged on inflation. The unjustified money payments

sharply have worsened a situation in the consumer market.

The reasons of occurrence of inflation can be both internal, and

external. To the external reasons concern, in particular, reduction of

receipts from foreign trade, negative results of the foreign trade and

payment balances. The inflationary process in Russia strengthened fall of

the prices in the global market on fuel and colour metals making important

clause of our export, and also adverse conjuncture in the grain market in

conditions of significant import grain. In Hungary, which economy in the

greater measure depends on a condition of foreign economic relations, just

the external factor (deterioration of conditions of international trade,

increase of the external debt) played a hardly probable not determining

role in amplification inflationary processes. Thus the politics of

escalating of export and restraint of import reduced growth internal,

wholesale and consumer costs.

The inflationary rise in prices alongside with the marked factors is

caused by the deeper reasons having basic character. Let's consider on an

example of Russia.

First, as a rule, one of sources of inflationary processes the

deformation of economic structure expressing in essential backlog of

branches of consumer sector at obvious super-changed development of

branches of heavy industry serves and is especial of military mechanical

engineering.

Secondly, inability to overcome inflation is deviated by lacks of an

economic mechanism. In conditions of the centralised economy practically

there was no feedback, there were no effective economic levers, which were

capable to adjust a parity between money and commodity weight; as to

administrative terminators, they “worked” insufficiently effectively. In

system of financial planning state plan played a determining role, instead

of Ministry of finance and not the State Bank, which “worked” under it,

supporting the scheduled tasks financial and money resources without any

restrictions.

Becoming traditional the politics of high rates of economic development

ignored real resource opportunities. To support rates, the capital

investments were constantly increased. In result the growth of consumption

restrained; the efficiency of capital investments fell that negatively had

an effect for economic growth and current manufacture. The means for new

technology did not suffice, and continuous growing of fund of accumulation

did not give desirable result. A problem died any more in amount of a

capital investment, and in their efficiency, structure to reconstruct which

economic mechanism prevented.

The contradiction and deficiencies deleted there are more means, and

the financial and budget terminators were very weak or practically were

absent. Unbalanced took place not only in the consumer market. Its basis -

increasing disproportion in the manufacture, strengthening financially -

financial not of balance, defects in system of planning, in the mechanism

of the money manipulation, in absence of antiinflationary regulation.

Examining the reasons of inflation, the economists will carry out

distinction between two its kinds - “ by inflation of the buyers “

(inflation of demand) and “ by inflation of the sellers “ (inflation of

costs). In effect, it is two, as a rule, interconnected, but unequivalent

reasons of inflation: one lays on the part of demand (surplus of money

resources at the buyers), another - on the part of the offer (growth of

industrial costs).

Depending on character of inflation and rates of increase of

inflationary processes distinguish the following types of inflation:

1) Slow inflation, for which the rather low rates of a rise in prices,

approximately up to ten or several percents per one year are

characteristic. Such inflation is inherent in the majority of the countries

with the advanced market economy, and it is not represented by something

unusual. The average level of inflation on the countries of the European

community has made for last years about 3 - 3,5%.

2) Galloping inflation is difficult in ruling.

The rate of its growth is expressed usually in two-place figures. Such high

rates in the 80-th years were observed, for example, in many countries of

Latin America, some countries of Southern Asia. The galloping rise in

prices shows itself unequally and has not the strictly designated

quantitative parameters. The inflationary processes depend on a level of

development of the country, social economic structure unsimilar regulation

of price processes. In the period after war - the period of capitalism has

gone through two large waves of inflation: at transition from military

economy of a market type (1945-1952) and under influence “ of petroleum

shocks ”, is sharp shocked all structure of the world and internal prices

(1974-1981). But it was possible to western countries to stop inflationary

processes, using various methods of antiinflationary regulation. For the

small countries, for example of Sweden, it was important to avoid imported

inflation, for what the increase of the prices of national currency was

used. Other countries resorted to methods of restraint of inflation by

means of money-credit politics.

3) The greatest danger represents super-inflation. Its conditional

boundary - monthly (within three-four months) rise in prices more than 50%,

and annual will be expressed four numbers in figures. The feature super-

inflation that it appears practically unguided; the usual functional

interrelations and habitual levers of management of the prices do not work.

On complete power the printed machine tool works, the gamble develops mad.

Manufacture will be disorganised. To stop or to brake super-inflation it is

necessary to resort to extreme measures. But there is no unequivocal

representation about that, how to struggle with super-inflation. The rather

inconsistent recipes are assumed various, quite often.

To outstrip inevitable, increase, expected by all, of the prices, the

owners of “hot” money aspire as soon as possible gets rid of them. In

result is developed great demand; those goods are bought up first of all

which can serve a means of partial preservation of the savings (real

estate, subjects of art, precious metals). The people work under pressure

“inflationary crisis ”, and it grow a rise in prices, and the inflation

begins to feed itself.

Classical example super-inflation - conditions which has been usual in

Germany and a number of other countries after the First World War. In

Germany in 1923 the level of a rise in prices was estimated 10 numbers and

12 numbers by numbers; the wages should be spent immediately, for within

day of the price on products raised repeatedly.

The process of inflation is inconsistent. On the one hand, the money

profits are increased, the capital investments extend, and with another -

the rise in prices conducts to depreciation of the unused capital. Win not

everything, and, first of all strong firms having the modern equipment,

perfect organisation of manufacture. In the best rule(situation) there are

social groups living on the not fixed incomes, if their nominal incomes

will grow by rate overtaking a rise in prices.

From inflation the people who take money on credit can win, if not is

stipulated, that percent for the credit should take into account an

inflationary rise in prices.

But whichever there were positive functions of inflation, leaving from

under the control and even remaining rather weak, adjusted, the inflation

renders on a course of economic development the whole complex especially of

negative phenomena.

To negative consequences of inflationary processes concern:

- Decrease of the real incomes of the population;

- Depreciation of the savings of the population (the increase of

percents on the contributions, as a rule, does not compensate fall of the

real sizes of the savings);

- The loss at the manufacturers of interest in creation of the

qualitative goods (is increased release of the goods of poor quality,

manufacture of the rather cheap goods) is reduced;

- Restriction of sale of agricultural products in city by the rural

manufacturers by virtue of fall of interest, in expectation of increase of

the prices on the foodstuffs;

- Deterioration of conditions of life mainly at the representatives of

social groups with the firm incomes (pensioners serving, students, which

incomes are formed for the account state budget);

- Easing positions of imperious structures (is reduced trust to the

programs and measures planned and carried out government).

The management of inflation represents a major problem money-credit and

in the whole economic politics. The ways of management are ambiguous, are

inconsistent on the consequences. The range of parameters for realisation

of such politics can be rather narrow: on the one hand, it is required to

constrain growth of an inflationary spiral, and with another - to support

stimulus of manufacture to create conditions for saturation of the market

by the goods.

The management of inflation assumes use of the complex measures

assisting in a certain measure to combine an insignificant rise in prices

with stabilisation of the incomes. The tools of management of process

differ depending on character and rate of inflation, features of economic

conditions, specificity of an economic mechanism of the different

countries.

For antiinflationary regulation two are used such as economic politics:

1) Politics directed on reduction of budget deficiency, restriction of

credit expansion, restraint of money issue. In conformity with material the

recipes apply targets - regulation of rate of a gain of money weight in the

certain limits - according to rate of growth of a total national product

2) Politics of price control and incomes having by the purpose to co-

ordinate growth of earnings with a rise in prices. One of means serves

index of the incomes determined by a level of a minimum conditions of life

or a standard consumer basket and connected with dynamics of an index of

the prices. For restraint of the undesirable phenomena the limits of

increase or freezing of wages can be established, to be limited

distribution of the credits etc.

The influence on inflationary process in conditions of a sharp rise in

prices requires special measures. So, for elimination of consequences “ of

a petroleum shock ”, struck on economy of USA in second half of 70-th

years, the registration rates were increased, the requirements to the sizes

of reserve funds are amplified, the system of the taxation is stipulated.

To lower rates of an inflationary rise in prices it was possible not at

once: from 13-14 of % in 1979 they have decreased to 4 % after about three

years - in 1982.

As the experience testifies, to stop inflation with the help of one

organisational measures rather difficulty if not to tell it is impossible.

The structural reform directed on overcoming of disproportion’s, that has

arisen in economy is necessary for this purpose.

The concrete methods of restraint of inflation, “dose” and sequence of

application of means, attracted for treatment, depend on statement of the

correct diagnosis. To put the diagnosis - means, to determine character of

inflation, to allocate the factors, basic and connected to them, which

makes the growth of inflationary processes. In this case it is not

necessary to expect for any ready circuits, and series of extreme measures

to finish with inflation. Each inflation is specific and assumes

application of such recipes, which correspond to character and depth of

“disease”.

Constant consequence in particular of inflationary process is the

unemployment. By virtue of importance of this problem the state accepts the

special measures for regulation of the market of work.

The market of work - important sphere economic and social - political

life of a society. In the market of work labour receives an estimation

cost, the conditions of its employment, including size of wages, working

conditions, opportunity of reception of education, professional growth,

guarantee of employment etc are defined. The market of work reflects the

basic tendencies in changes of employment, its(her) basic structures

(branch, vocational, demographic), i.e. in a public division of labour,

mobility of a labour, scales and changes of unemployment.

The unemployment is a social economic phenomenon, at which the part of

a labour (economically of active population) is not engaged in manufacture

of the goods and services. The unemployed alongside with engaged form a

labour of the country. In real economic life the unemployment acts as

excess of a labour above demand for it(her). To the unemployed, according

to statistics of many advanced countries, the persons who have been not

engaged on the moment of realisation of interrogation about the status of

their employment, undertaking attempts concern to find work within the

previous four weeks and registered on labour exchange.

Heavy for the countries of West were 30 years of our century. In USA

the rate of unemployment has reached 25%. The diagram showing the dynamics

of a rate of unemployment in USA for 100 years is rather curious (1890-

1990).

If the share of the unemployed makes 1-3 % in general army of work, not

it is accepted to count employment insignificant. Especially dangerous in

social sense not employment (absence of work within 40 weeks and more) is

long chronic.

It is important to emphasise, that to the unemployed usually carry not

only dismissed on the various reasons, but also persons voluntary left

works and undertaking attempt to find new. The structure of unemployment

for its reasons includes four basic categories of a labour:

1) Lost work as a result of dismissal;

2) Voluntary left work;

3) Come on the market of work after a break;

4) For the first time come on the market of work.

The parity of these categories depends, first of all, on a phase of a

business cycle.

The monthly average rate of unemployment within the given year pays off

under the formula:

UE*100 of %

Lue = ------------------

LFc,

Where Lue - level (norm) of unemployment, %; UE - monthly average

number of the unemployed; LFc - number of a civil labour.

There are some concepts treating a phenomenon of unemployment. In

Mark’s of the theory it usually connect to process of accumulation of the

capital, at which the requirement for alive work (variable capital) is

increased slower, than in machines, equipment (constant capital). In

western economic science the point of view dominates, according to which

the unemployment in the basis reflects an economic feasibility of use of

resources, just as, say degree of loading of capacities reflects expediency

and efficiency of use of a fixed capital. A so-called natural rate of

unemployment reflecting structural disproportion in the market of work

(between structure of a supply and demand of a labour on qualification, by

demographic and other criteria). To natural unemployment carry also so-

called friction unemployment connected mainly to voluntary transition of

the workers from one work on another and to seasonal fluctuations in demand

for a labour.

In USA in the 60-th years as a natural rate of unemployment the

parameter in 4,3 %, in 70-th - already 6,6 %, in 80-th - about 7% was

considered. The excess of unemployment above a natural level is determined

in the basic cyclic factor, i.e. condition of a conjuncture in the country.

Changes of unemployment is influenced, besides demographic factors,

with changes in structure of economy, condition of foreign trade and export

of the capital, scales of the military charges, economic and social

politics of the state.

Owing to variety of internal regulators of the market of a labour, and

also by virtue of social importance of its effective functioning the market

of work requires the qualified regulation.

It is possible to allocate four basic directions of state regulation of

the market of work. First, it is the programs on stimulation of growth of

employment and increase of number of workplaces in public sector, secondly,

programs directed on preparation and retraining of a labour, and, thirdly,

program of assistance to hiring of a labour. Besides the government accepts

the programs on social insurance of unemployment, i.e. allocates means for

the grants with the unemployed.

Within the framework of this program in USA, for example, in after war

period - hundred thousand workplaces in public sector (in sphere of public

services - education, health services, municipal services, and also in

construction of public buildings and structures and in remaking works) were

created. With the help of these programs the rate of unemployment at the

end of the 70-th years was artificial is underestimated on 0,8 percentage

items.

The more and more important meaning gets state assistance to hiring.

So, service of giving jobs in USA having more of 2500 local agencies

(labour exchanges), is engaged in registration of the unemployed, tries to

find by it vacancies, will carry out testing the applicants for work for

definition of their qualification.

The listed directions do not settle all measures of influence of the

state on the market of work. Alongside with them there is a complex of

measures of indirect regulation of a labour: tax, money-credit and

amortisation politics of government. Besides the considerable influence on

the market of work renders also legislation - about social maintenance,

about the labour relations, about the equal civil rights etc.

The measures of indirect regulation of the market of a labour

simultaneously are also measures economic of regulation and influence a

conjuncture in the country.

The special place in system of regulation of the market of work is

occupied with labour exchange (service of employment, service to assistance

to hiring), being one of the important structures of a market economic

mechanism. It represents special establishment, which is carrying out

intermediary functions in the market of a labour. In the majority of the

countries of labour exchange are state and carry out the activity under the

direction of the ministry of work or body, similar to it(him). At the same

time in the market of work alongside with state services of employment the

large number of private intermediate firms functions, the efficiency of

which activity is very high.

The basic directions of activity of labour exchanges are:

1) Registration of the unemployed;

2) Registration of vacant places;

3) Giving jobs to the unemployed and other persons wishing to get a

job;

4) Study of a conjuncture of the market of work and granting of the

information about it(her);

5) Testing the persons wishing to offer work;

6) Professional orientation and professional retraining of the

unemployed;

7) Payment of the grants.

The majority of the economists believe, that the problem of

unemployment and other disproportion in the market of work can be softened

only with the help of a combination of various means - stimulation of

economic growth, reduction of working week, creation of an effective system

of retraining of the staff.

Thus, the modern state regulation of the market of work represents a

complex of economic, administrative, organisational and other measures.

The existing nowadays system of state regulation of economy has

developed not at once. During the development it has passed some stages:

1) Creation of general favourable conditions for reproduction of the

private capital; a concentration of efforts of the state on development of

the labour, tax, trade, social legislation, customs politics, on

maintenance of stability of money. Construction and purchase of objects in

raw and infrastuctural branches.

2) The unmatched among them actions of an anticrisis and structural

orientation, attempt to influence employment and prices.

3) Experiments with use of money-credit and budget means of regulation

of economy. A wave of a privatisation of objects of a state ownership.

4) Transition in a number of the countries to branch and regional

intermediate term programming; attempts to increase effectiveness of state

regulation of economy by study of compatibility and interchangeability of

tools of regulation, definition of their efficiency.

5) Realisation in the increasing number of the advanced countries of

nation-wide intermediate term programming in a combination to development

long-term perspective ways. More and more address, dosing and complex use

of tools of regulation.

6) Measure as agreed of nation-wide intermediate term programs at an

interstate level in framework integration of associations; steps in a

direction national of planning.

On scales, the tools and efficiency of state regulation of economy

decisive influence rendered tasks rising before economy of the separate

countries, material opportunities of the states reflected in a share to

them of a total internal product and in the absolute sizes of means, which

it is ready to use on state regulation of economy accrued experience and

successes in scientific development of problems of state economic politics

in conditions of a market economy.

The mechanism of state regulation of economy is constantly improved,

irrespective of, the governments on principles of economic politics are

guided or are inclined to use more rigid budget tools of regulation. In

modern conditions the practice of state regulation of economy has appeared

rather productive to not admit general crises and social - dangerous of

scales of unemployment.

The literature.

1) Economy. The textbook for economic academies, high schools and

faculties. Under edition of the candidate of economic sciences, senior

lecturer of AMPERE-SECOND. Bulatova. Publishing house. Moscow 1995.

2) Macroeconomic. The manual. M.K. Bunkina,V.A. Semenov. Publishing

house “ Moscow 1995.

3) Social market economy. The German way. Chaints Lampert. Publishing

house “Business”. Moscow 1994.

4) Market economy. The textbook. Volume 1, part 1. Publishing house

“Somintek”. Moscow 1992.